diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
index c7bef8b..0cd53ab 100644
--- a/README.md
+++ b/README.md
@@ -469,7 +469,7 @@ Each entry in `attempts` describes one operation, successful or not, so a failur
 }
 ```
 
-`stage` (`"connect"` or `"read"`) is set on WHOIS timeouts. If a WHOIS server sends some data but never closes the connection, the timeout **resolves with the partial text** instead of failing, and the attempt is marked `partial: true`.
+`stage` (`"connect"` or `"read"`) is set on WHOIS timeouts, and `"read"` also marks a server that accepted the connection and closed it without sending anything (`errorCode: "no_data"`, not a successful empty answer). If a WHOIS server sends some data but never closes the connection, the timeout **resolves with the partial text** instead of failing, and the attempt is marked `partial: true`.
 
 `timeoutMs` applies to each network operation (including reading the response body), not to the lookup as a whole. Without `deadlineMs`, the worst case is roughly `timeoutMs × (1 bootstrap + N RDAP servers + up to 2 RDAP links + 1 IANA + 1 + maxWhoisReferralHops WHOIS queries)`. Set `deadlineMs` to put a hard cap on the total, e.g. for serverless functions with an execution limit:
 
diff --git a/src/types.ts b/src/types.ts
index c14e8a6..fb1b4d0 100644
--- a/src/types.ts
+++ b/src/types.ts
@@ -416,7 +416,7 @@ export interface LookupAttempt {
   durationMs: number;
   errorCode?: LookupErrorCode;
   error?: string;
-  /** WHOIS timeouts only: whether the socket never connected or connected but sent nothing */
+  /** WHOIS failures only: `connect` if the socket never connected; `read` if it connected but sent nothing (timeout, or closed without a response, which is `no_data`) */
   stage?: "connect" | "read";
   /** WHOIS only: the read timed out after some data arrived, so the text is partial */
   partial?: boolean;
diff --git a/src/whois/client.timeout.test.ts b/src/whois/client.timeout.test.ts
index 76cc174..e9a21ab 100644
--- a/src/whois/client.timeout.test.ts
+++ b/src/whois/client.timeout.test.ts
@@ -113,12 +113,38 @@ describe("whoisQuery timeouts", () => {
     ).rejects.toMatchObject({ code: "aborted" });
   });
 
-  it("keeps the data when a server resets the connection after replying", async () => {
+  it("keeps the data (not flagged partial) when a server resets after replying", async () => {
     const p = whoisQuery("whois.example", "example.test");
     await vi.advanceTimersByTimeAsync(0);
     socket.emit("connect");
     socket.emit("data", Buffer.from("answer"));
     socket.emit("error", Object.assign(new Error("reset"), { code: "ECONNRESET" }));
-    await expect(p).resolves.toMatchObject({ text: "answer", partial: true });
+    const res = await p;
+    expect(res.text).toBe("answer");
+    expect(res.partial).toBeUndefined();
+  });
+
+  it.each(["end", "close"])(
+    "rejects with no_data when the server sends nothing then %s",
+    async (evt) => {
+      const p = whoisQuery("whois.example", "example.test");
+      const assertion = expect(p).rejects.toMatchObject({ code: "no_data", stage: "read" });
+      await vi.advanceTimersByTimeAsync(0);
+      socket.emit("connect");
+      socket.emit(evt);
+      await assertion;
+    },
+  );
+
+  it.each([
+    [false, "connect"],
+    [true, "read"],
+  ])("gives an OS ETIMEDOUT (connected=%s) stage %s", async (connected, stage) => {
+    const p = whoisQuery("whois.example", "example.test");
+    const assertion = expect(p).rejects.toMatchObject({ code: "timeout", stage });
+    await vi.advanceTimersByTimeAsync(0);
+    if (connected) socket.emit("connect");
+    socket.emit("error", Object.assign(new Error("connect ETIMEDOUT"), { code: "ETIMEDOUT" }));
+    await assertion;
   });
 });
diff --git a/src/whois/client.ts b/src/whois/client.ts
index 23e8cf7..043f2f2 100644
--- a/src/whois/client.ts
+++ b/src/whois/client.ts
@@ -109,9 +109,18 @@ async function queryTcp(
     signal?.addEventListener("abort", onAbort, { once: true });
 
     socket.on("error", (err: NodeJS.ErrnoException) => {
-      // Servers that reset the connection after replying still gave us an answer
       if (err.code === "ECONNRESET" && received > 0) {
-        finish(() => resolve({ text: text(), partial: true }));
+        // The server replied and then reset. Nothing says the reply was cut short, so this is
+        // a normal result; `partial` is reserved for our own read timeout.
+        finish(() => resolve({ text: text() }));
+      } else if (err.code === "ETIMEDOUT") {
+        // OS-level timeout: keep the same shape as our own timer's errors
+        const stage = connected ? "read" : "connect";
+        finish(() =>
+          reject(
+            new RdapperError("timeout", `WHOIS ${stage} timeout (${host})`, { stage, cause: err }),
+          ),
+        );
       } else {
         finish(() => reject(err));
       }
@@ -121,12 +130,29 @@ async function queryTcp(
       chunks.push(buf);
       received += buf.length;
     });
-    socket.on("end", () => {
-      finish(() => resolve({ text: text() }));
-    });
+    // A connection that closes without sending anything (e.g. a throttled client being dropped)
+    // is a failure, not an empty successful answer.
+    const complete = () => {
+      if (received > 0) {
+        finish(() => resolve({ text: text() }));
+      } else {
+        finish(() =>
+          reject(
+            new RdapperError(
+              "no_data",
+              `WHOIS server closed the connection without a response (${host})`,
+              {
+                stage: "read",
+              },
+            ),
+          ),
+        );
+      }
+    };
+    socket.on("end", complete);
     // A close without a preceding end/error (half-open teardown) would otherwise wait out the timer
     socket.on("close", () => {
-      if (connected) finish(() => resolve({ text: text() }));
+      if (connected) complete();
       else {
         finish(() =>
           reject(new RdapperError("connect_failed", `WHOIS connection closed (${host})`)),